What Is the Glass Ceiling? Brief History

The term “glass ceiling” is a metaphor in feminism that describes the invisible barrier—made up of discriminatory gender stereotypes—preventing women from rising beyond a certain point in an organization or hierarchy. The term most often applies to business organizations where women have struggled (or found it impossible) to be hired for or promoted to high-level positions in a company, and a working woman received lower pay than a working man for equivalent work and qualifications.

In intersectional activism, the glass ceiling metaphor can also describe the invisible barriers that hinder people of color, LGBTQ+ individuals, and other underprivileged groups from career advancement in an organization. Related terms include the “glass escalator” (or the ease by which men, especially white men, ascend in the labor force), the “glass cliff” (or the higher likelihood of women receiving leadership roles in times of crisis), and the “frozen middle” (or the tendency for women to get stuck in middle-management-level positions).

In the United States, the “glass ceiling effect” has been a topic since the 1970s:

• 1970s: In the late 1970s, diversity advocate Marilyn Loden used the phrase “glass ceiling” to describe the invisible barrier that prevented women employees from climbing the corporate ladder and receiving leadership positions. Throughout the 1980s, women began to protest the glass ceiling and fight for workplace gender equality, especially through publications like Gay Bryant’s The Working Woman Report.
• 1990s: In 1991, with growing attention to the glass ceiling, the US Department of Labor created the Glass Ceiling Commission to examine workplace gender inequality and design recommendations for how to break the glass ceiling. The commission released its report in 1995 and included recommendations for the advancement of women in the workplace, including policies designed to increase the number of women in the workplace and decrease gender discrimination.
• Today: Society continues to make significant progress in permanently shattering the glass ceiling—for example, the number of female CEOs (or C-suite executives) in Fortune 500 companies has increased between the 1990s and today. However, the glass ceiling still exists, especially for Black women, other disadvantaged groups, LGBTQ+ individuals, and others. More targeted efforts can help combat sexism and create more equality in the workplace.

The glass ceiling in the workplace is a direct result of gender bias in the hiring, daily operations, promotion, and salary practices in companies. In general, companies have avoided advancing women in the workplace because they perceive women as more emotional, less intelligent, or more suited for work in the home. In addition, companies often interpret career-focused women as unnaturally aggressive or rude while they reward similar traits in male counterparts. In certain workplaces, women may leave before achieving executive-level or higher-level roles because of significant barriers like office bullying and sexual harassment.

If your company wants to help break the glass ceiling and promote gender equality in the workplace, here are some things you can do:

• Assess company diversity. The clearest evidence of a glass ceiling at your workplace is if diversity dwindles as you move toward the highest-level decision-making jobs. Take an in-depth look at the senior management and executive positions in your company and see if there are major women leaders or an overwhelming majority of men or white people—if so, start identifying reasons why women and people of color cannot break through the invisible barrier.
• Equalize pay. A major quantifiable consequence of inequality is the gender pay gap—the fact that men tend to make more money than women at the same level and with the same qualifications. In your company, be transparent with pay grades, and make sure that men and women earn the same across job level and qualifications.
• Establish mentoring and networking opportunities. Many employees subject to the glass ceiling suffer from feelings of isolation; they struggle to make connections with other employees to effect positive change in their situations. To combat this, provide ample opportunities in your company for mentoring and networking opportunities—especially between women and people of color—to encourage stronger bonds and empowerment, to create a healthier work environment, and to facilitate better professional development and mental health.
• Remember intersectionality. The glass ceiling isn’t just about gender—it also encompasses race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and more. In fact, women of color, transgender women, and women of other disadvantaged groups are much more significantly affected and limited by the glass ceiling than white women. In your efforts to break the glass ceiling, keep in mind the mismatched privilege between cisgender white women and BIPOC and LGBTQ+ women, and offer extra support and opportunities to those affected most.

Feminism is an intersectional movement with a focus on issues that touch every part of our lives, including reproductive rights, workplace culture, and caregiving. Gain access to exclusive videos on feminism with the MasterClass Annual Membership and get a crash course from leaders Gloria Steinem, Amanda Nguyen, Tina Tchen, and adrienne maree brown.