12 Logical Fallacies: How to Identify Logical Fallacies

A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid. There are different ways this can happen; many occur often enough to require specific logical fallacies. Sound argumentation skills can be a major asset in various life situations, and knowing how to spot and avoid fallacies can help you develop these skills.

Logical fallacies break down into two main categories: formal fallacies and informal fallacies.

1. 1. Formal fallacies: A statement containing a formal fallacy has a problem with one or more parts of the form of the argument. Non-sequitur errors render the logic deceptive. In simple terms, one thing doesn’t logically follow another, leading to a poor argument.
2. 2. Informal fallacies: The other main category of fallacies is informal fallacies. These fallacious arguments are due to a flaw in their content: Either the premises or some part of what should follow from the premises is false, leading to a flawed argument.

Identifying common types of fallacies will help you make better arguments and counterarguments and improve your critical thinking skills. Consider the following common fallacies:

1. 1. Ad hominem fallacy: This is a red herring fallacy, where there is a problem with the relevance of a proposition in the argument. When a person makes an ad hominem argument, they are making a personal attack on the character or attributes of the arguer, not the argument itself.
2. 2. Ad populum fallacy: The ad populum fallacy attempts to make an argument because many people, even a majority of them, believe that the case is valid. This is also known as a bandwagon fallacy.
3. 3. Appeal to authority fallacy: When you appeal to authority, you are not making a sound argument but are instead implying that your assertion must be correct because a certain authority also asserts it.
4. 4. Begging the question fallacy: This fallacy happens when the arguer assumes the conclusion they are trying to prove is true before giving supporting evidence. In this fallacy, also known as circular reasoning or a circular argument, the arguer isn’t making a sound case supported by logic. For example, suppose someone says, “Social media increases social division because it causes polarization.” Here, the arguer restates the conclusion rather than supports it with new information.
5. 5. Equivocation fallacy: In an equivocation fallacy, an arguer uses a deliberately ambiguous term. By not specifying the meaning, the argument is misleading.
6. 6. False dichotomy fallacy: A false dichotomy, also known as a false dilemma fallacy, occurs when arguers present two things as if they are the only possible choices when in fact, there are several potential outcomes or alternatives.
7. 7. Hasty generalization fallacy: A hasty generalization occurs when a broad conclusion derives from scant evidence or insufficient data. This is also known as an overgeneralization fallacy or jumping to conclusions.
8. 8. No true Scotsman fallacy: This informal fallacy, also known as an appeal to purity, is a faulty generalization fallacy in which an arguer makes a generalization appear true by excluding an exception or counterexample. Suppose someone states that hunter-gatherers lived in small tribes. An anthropologist might point out that some hunter-gatherers lived in large, complex settlements. If the arguer responds, “Well, those aren’t true hunter-gatherers,” it is an example of this type of fallacy.
9. 9. Post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy: This logical fallacy follows the phrase “correlation does not imply causation.” A post hoc fallacy states that because one thing follows another chronologically, there is a causal relationship when, in fact, there may be none.
10. 10. Slippery slope fallacy: The slippery slope fallacy implies that if one accepts the argument, it will inevitably lead to other positions that aren’t under discussion but are usually agreed to be bad by both parties.
11. 11. Straw man fallacy: The straw man fallacy occurs when the arguer is misrepresenting or distorting their opponent’s position to more easily discredit it and win the argument.
12. 12. Tu quoque fallacy: Latin for “you too,” this fallacy tries to divert attention away from the main argument by pointing out that the other person does not live by their stated principles, follow their own argument, or is otherwise hypocritical. This fallacy is commonly known as a kind of whataboutism.
13. 13. Appeal to Ignorance fallacy: Known in Latin as “argumentum ad ignorantiam,” this type of fallacious reasoning occurs when someone assumes a claim is true simply because it hasn’t been proven false or can’t be proven false.
14. 14. Appeal to emotion fallacy: This type of fallacy involves an attempt to influence the emotions of the other party—whether through anger, fear, pity, or other feelings—rather than relying on logic and reason to persuade them of your case.

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